The Visualisation and Secularisation of Christian Theology in Mankind and Obra da Geraçao Humana

José Manuel González

(University of Alicante)

Medieval drama is mainly concerned with religious aspects. Religion -a major theme in Medieval theatre- cannot be fully understood without considering and measuring its relevance and significance to the tastes and expectations of the contemporary audience. There is a preoccupation with account in detail the different aspects of the common faith. This is why "Almost all Medieval drama inevitably has to be scrutinised through the lens supplied by the Church.". The great majority of Medieval plays were devoted to "religious purposes and primarily brought into being to render the salient truths of Christian faith". The moralities also manifest a religious intention and devotion. They incorporate this traditional concern for they dramatise topics and themes concerning man´s salvation. The moralities -like the Mystery Cycles- were a form "of unashamedly didactic drama" since they were "deeply concerned for the spiritual welfare of man".

They present a greater ideological concern as they dramatise religious principles and dogmas to illuminate "the actual situations of life". They exhibit a stronger theological potential as they try to show the complexities and contradictions of the truths and principles of Christian faith when a progressive secularisation was becoming more and more explicit and influential in everyday life. In this way they visualise and popularise the most intricate and complex dogmatic questions, combining theological principles with comic elements. It was a way of becoming acquainted with the doctrine of human salvation and of appropriating Christian beliefs. Moreover man becomes a part in the representation of his tragedy and redemption as he tries to achieve everlasting happiness in heaven. There is a dramatic attempt to explain and justify the presence of good and evil on the stage as well as in life. Thus theology becomes a fundamental issue to be taken into account in coming to terms with all the significance of the moralities.

Mankind has been regarded as a play which is "theologically and philosophically subtle". In it there is a dramatisation of the nature and foundations of Christian faith as well as references to biblical passages which make explicit and justify the fundamental theological doctrine. The play begins with a sermon which anticipates and summarises the religious content which is going to be developed later:

That for our disobedience he had none indignation

To send his own son to be torn and crucified;

Our obsequious service to him should be applied,

Where he was Lord of all and made all thing of,

nought

For the sinful sinner, to had him revived

And for his redemption, set his own son at nought.

This Miltonian opening contains the most relevant and significant doctrine of Christology since it refers to "the foundation of mercy in Christ´s sacrifice on the cross; the importance of good works and the nearness of the Last Judgment". The theology of grace, therefore, in its different aspects and elements is the very essence of Mankind´s religious principles and dogmas emphasising the fact that all salvation comes from God. Mankind can only persevere and get heavenly joy with the help and mediation of Christ. This is precisely what Mercy makes clear to him: "Misereri mei Deus". Only "Per suam misericordiam". Mankind can resist Titivillus´ temptations. Moreover Mercy can be considered as a personification of one of the aspects of divine grace. He is just "The great mercy of God" who helps Mankind and becomes "the very mean of [his] restitution".

Christian orthodoxy teaches that the initiative in the relationship of grace between God and man is always on the side of God as it is said in the Letter of Peter to Titus: "For the grace of God has appeared for the salvation of all men" (2:11). Once God has granted his divine gift, man is justified. It shows the divine influence operating in man for his regeneration and sanctification. Mankind himself is well aware of it: "With the help of the grace of God, I resist my fon". However the play underlines "Mankind´s personal initiative and responsibility". It is not only God´s work but also Mankind´s decisions and efforts that make possible his justification. Although the ideas of grace and of merit are mutually exclusive, neither Augustine nor Protestantism could avoid the question of reward as the process of man´s salvation is the result of cooperating grace which includes man´s activity as well as "God´s provision":

Of the earth and of the clay we have our propagation;

By the providence of God thus we derivate -

To whose mercy I recommend this whole congregation;

I hope unto his bliss ye be all predestinate.

Every man, for his degree, I trust shall be participate,

If we will mortify our carnal condition

And our voluntary desires, that ever be perversionate,

To renounce them and yield us under God´s provision.

We learn that for Mankind salvation not only comes from God but also from man´s "voluntary desires" and the mortification of "our carnal condition".

This "emphasis on personal piety rather than sacramentalism implicitly challenges the church´s monopoly on salvation", because man´s justification is a private matter which does not need any intermediate or sacrament as channel of the divine grace. Participation in grace occurs on the occasion of personal faith and not by sacramental observance. Justification has not a public dimension. "Salvation is a private matter between God and the protagonist that does not depend on sacramental mediation". Mankind can be seen as a dramatic anticipation of the Protestant interpretation of the doctrine of grace which depends very much on Christ´s redemption. Redemption becomes a key concept in the play. It is seen as "restitution" and "retribution". Christ´s passion and crucifixion restores the previous order which was broken by man´s sinful actions. In this way "God´s own wellbeloved son" satisfied Him as He was much offended by man´s disobedience. It is precisely what Mercy tries to make clear to the audience: "Every drop of his blood was shed to purge thine iniquity".

The nearness of the Last Judgment is another important theological locus in this morality play since all the doctrine has eschatological connotations. It is not dramatised in the play though it is omnipresent for all the dramatic action is structured with this theological truth in mind. Everything is viewed and approached from that perspective. Mankind must be ready to face God´s justice. It means, and as Mercy suggests- that he has to change his way of life and not to yield to temptation. He must, therefore, come back to Mercy and follow his advice and instructions. It will be at the Last Judgment when "Justice and Equity shall be fortified" and when Mankind "would be relegated body and soul either to heaven or to hell for all eternity". Mankind relies on the Virgin Mary´s "mediation" for that day in order to gain eternal salvation. She plays a significant role in helping him in his struggle against evil and sin. She is presented as Mediatrix as she intercedes with Christ on behalf of man. Her advocacy is decisive to follow and remain faithful to God´s commands. The Marian presence becomes relevant because of Mankind´s weakness and sinful deeds. Her intercession is also necessary to achieve final justification as he learns that vita hominis est militia super terram. He needs special help to face those difficulties. This is why he invokes her and asks for her protection: "Lady, help! Sovereigns, it doth my soul much ill" for he knows the contradictions and corrupt nature of human condition. Mercy, Mankind´s counsellor and companion, tries to persuade Our Lady to show "pity and compassion" on "the wretchedness of Mankind". Thus she becomes the "Mother of Mercy" for him who is "so wanton and so frail".

The theological doctrine and didactic concern is presented in a secular world as a reaction against the spiritualisation of previous drama. The dramatisation of bawdy humour and violent action provokes new attitudes and expectations in the audience anticipating the new theatrical interests and conventions of early modern drama. The new secular world picture is taken to extremes in the use of obscenity and bawdy talk "particularly with reference to bodily functions" to create disruption and subversion of the traditional order. Worldly values are opposed and contrasted with religious truths, combining "the blend of serious theme and comic action". There is a dramatic battle and confrontation between the body and the soul, the flesh and the spirit, Mankind and Mercy. The antithetical structure "is most obvious and effective in the two temptations scenes at the very centre of the play". But this dramatic contrast is not something rigid in practice because "a sense of a free-for-all relationship between good and evil" is created "through mockery and physical violence", reflecting a growing awareness of the tensions and changes which people experienced at the close of the Middle Ages when a new view of the world and of man started to emerge.

Comic and simple visual effects are used to increase the secular potential of the play. The comic element can be a reflection of the carnival spirit which "makes sense of nonsense and nonsense of sense" and shows "the arbitrariness of all norms and rules". This comic and visual dimension can be seen in Titivillus´s invisibility by means of a mantle, and in the display of tricks and devices to provoke the audience as when nowadays asks Mercy "Osculare fundamentum", or when Newguise urinates with their backs to the audience. There is also mockery of Christ and Our Lady:

Mischief. Lady, help! Seely darling, ven, ven!

I shall help thee of thy pain-

I shall smite off thy head and set it on again!

Nought. By our Lady, sir, a fair plaster!

Will ye off with his head? It is a shrewd charm!

As for me, I have none harm;

I were loath to forbear my arm!

Ye play: In nomine patris, chop!...

Nowadays. Yea, Christ´s cross! Will ye smite my head away?

The vices seem to be familiar with Christian doctrine as Titivillus is when he blesses them with his "left hand". It is just a way of making Mankind appear ridiculous and of showing no respect for his beliefs. However it is important to notice that they indirectly refer to Christian faith. So it might be that "The lesson of the play is delivered to Mankind in theory by Mercy, but it needs the experience of the comic scenes for the teaching to be given force.". It is evident that these beliefs are not so theatrically attractive and rewarding as they used to be either in the cycles or in Everyman. But there is still a dramatisation and visualisation of dogmatic questions in spite of the increasing secularisation. A kind of "theology in degeneracy" appears in a secular context using a secularised language to give a more realistic and contemporary significance to Christian doctrine.

Obra da Geraçao Humana (1517-1519), attributed to Gil Vicente29, is an example of Iberian morality drama which shares a doctrinal purpose as well as some dramatic features with Mankind. Both are product of medieval Christian culture and both are rooted in the traditional matter of didactic and moral works with a certain theatrical sophistication for the dramatic elements and conventions they incorporate. Both plays are concerned with Christian faith in a new cultural and social context. As their names suggest, the protagonists (Adam and Mankind) of these plays are universal prototypes whose individual characteristics refer to humanity in general.

Gil Vicente´s religious drama has a doctrinal intention and aim. He deals with some of the most relevant theological issues: "Free will, salvation by grace and justification by faith". He borrows this devotional material from sermons and biblical passages as in The Boat of Glory which contains some lines taken from the Book of Job and in Obra da Geraçao Humana which dramatises the story of the parable of the Good Samaritan. Moreover his religious plays discuss fundamental dogmatic aspects of Christian faith. In the first scene of Auto of the Soul the Angel tells the soul why it was created:

Alma humana, formada

de nenhua cousa, feita

mui preciosa,

de corrupçao separada,

Vossa pátria verdadeira

é ser herdeira da glória que conseguis.

The soul -in this case- represents everyone of us as individuals though it is also an allegory of mankind. The soul is reminded of its heavenly condition and perfection for which it has been made heiress of glory. However it must avoid corruption and evil in order to get its final goal of celestial happiness and joy. There is also a reference to the liturgies which take place in holy Thursday and Good Friday when the different parts of Christ´s redemption: sacrifice, passion, death and resurrection are ritualised in a single event. There is a more subtle and elaborate theological discussion in The Boat of Glory where spiritual welfare prevails over other secular considerations and worldly matters. Vicente, in this case, is very careful with the selection of a fundamental theological content in order to present the orthodox Christian position in such relevant matters concerning man´s salvation.

There are strong dramatic similarities and doctrinal interests between Mankind and Obra da Geraçao Humana. They repeat the classic morality structure from innocence through temptation to final redemption. They also share a theatrical exuberance as the Vices with their tricks and skills in the former, and Malicia and the two devils, Estaroque and Abiram, in the latter. There is violent action and cruelty as when the devils hit and play with Mankind and Adam who need help to succeed in their struggle against evil. They are the prototype of the Christian in his pilgrimage to heaven. When they become lost and confused, particular characters appear on the stage to protect and guide them, giving them comfort and care. However Adam seems to be luckier as he is helped and proteced by two angels, Justice and the Church facilitating his final salvation.

Again the theology of grace and redemption is of great importance to fully understand the religious message in Gil Vicente´s morality. Rezam makes clear to Adam his responsibility for losing the state of divine grace by following "O serpe maleciosa" ("O, evil serpent!") and disobeying God´s law: "Aa, Adam, Adam, que fizeste?" ("Adam, What have you done?"). But what is much more significant and decisive is the representational dimension of his sin for he stands for all humanity in his actions and decisions. Consequently he was the cause of the corruption and depravation of human nature: "e ho mal que he pior, que deitaste a geraçam em pecado". He confesses to the Priest: me perdí e fiz perder a toda a geraçam ho paraiso.". And the explanation for Adam´s fall is given by Justice in a very simple way "Como tomaste ho pecado, e deixaste por partido a Justiça". He also recognises that he is the one to blame. He acted with free will consented ("alvidrio consentio") though it is true that he was cheated by Malicia. Adam repeats and reproduces Mankind´s failure when he decides not to obey Mercy´s advice and to follow Titivillus and the Vices´ suggestions. It takes a tragic and negative experience to regain confidence and self-control that enable them to lead a Christian life.

As it is usual in Vicente Gil´s religious drama the Marian reference and influence is omnipresent. She does not appear as a character but she is addressed as "Madre de Deus" and "Emperatriz soberana". As a mother and queen she is always ready to help man with love and compassion. At the end of Obra da Geraçao Humana her presence and intercessions focus the dramatic action. It is, on the one hand, a kind of ecclesiastical tribute to her celestial figure paid by the Church and some of her most eminent and holy doctors. Thus Saints Gregory, Jerome, Ambrose and Augustine express their admiration for her virtues and her acceptance of God´s designs. But it is, on the other hand, a sermon or treatise of Mariology because there is a detailed account of the outstanding features of her divine personality and mission. Once again she is praised for her mediation in rescuing Adam from a sinful life as she is "a botica que nos cura".

Vicente´s morality play demonstrates a more theological interest as it tries to explain the religious truth. For this purpose there is a summary of the biblical story of the Good Samaritan as well as an allegorical explanation of the parable which is given to clarify its religious significance. Christ is the Good Samaritan who guides him to the Church. And her role becomes fundamental in Obra da Geraçao Humana. It is considered the centre of religious activity because it is the visible sacrament of Christ on earth. Grace and salvation comes through its mediation. Justification, therefore, is a public matter and not a private affair as was the case in Mankind which is not as traditional as Vicente´s because it shows an increasing secularisation which is reflected in the different ideas and values presented on the stage. Mankind is a much more innovative and modern play as a result of the new questions and situations it brings about. Obra da Geraçao Humana, which contains a more sophisticated theology with a less secularised potential, repeats previous ideological patterns and positions though -like its English counterpart- both share a theatrical complexity which anticipates some of the conventions and themes of early modern drama. Vicente´s religious plays also manifest some scepticism about the new trends in western civilisation. They are critical of social and ecclesiastical corruption for they dramatise "social abuses and judicial corruption" as a consequence of a "noticeable emphasis on Erasmian concerns". Later both the Christian and secular elements appear in the farces of Diego Sánchez de Badajoz conforming to a stronger dramatic unity and showing a more secularised and updated kind of drama. The religious debates are more theological and explicit for they raise "theological questions". From this perspective Sánchez is mainly preoccupied in popularising the most intricate and subtle theological content of the Christian faith through theatrical visualization, making it accessible and understandable to the audience.

NOTES

1. William Tydeman, "An Introduction to Medieval English Theatre", The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English Theatre, R. Beadle (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1994, p. 4.

2. Ibid., p. 18.

3. Christine Richardson and Jackie Johnston, Medieval Drama, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1991, p. 97.

4. Sister M.P. Coogan, An Interpretation of the Moral Play Mankind, Washington, 1947, p. 89.

5. G.A. Lester (ed.), "Introduction ", Three Late Medieval Morality Plays, London, Ernest Benn, 1981, XXI. All lines from Mankind have been taken from this edition.

6. G. A. Lester (ed.), Mankind, op. Cit., 3-8.

7. Ibid., "Introduction", XX. The didactic, religious aim is as relevant and decisive as the dramatic one in spite of E.K. Chambers´s claim of stressing the secular dimension of the play. See English Literature at the Close of the Middle Ages, Oxford University Press, 1945, p. 61.

8. Ibid., 21.