The Appearance of Evil

Charlotte Spivack

Partly because of television, but for other reasons as well, we live in an age of seeing more than hearing. When we attend the performance of a stage play, for example, we refer to seeing the play. It comes as a surprise to most people to learn that Elizabethans always spoke of going to hear a play. Clearly the Elizabethans loved the live sound of language, be it the latest play at the Globe or the sermon of the popular Dean of St. Paul’s, John Donne. This is of course only one of the ways in which the Renaissance differed substantially from the preceding Middle Ages, which - a bit surprisingly – in some ways were more modern. The Middle Ages were, like the twentieth century, an age of seeing.

Johan Huizinga, in his Autumn of the Middle Ages, states this situation very effectively. "The basic characteristic of the late medieval mind is its predominantly visual nature. This characteristic is closely related to the atrophy of the mind. Thought takes ooplace exclusively throug visual conceptions. Everything that is expressed is couched in visual terms. The absolute lack of intellectual content in the allegorical recitations and poems was bearable because satisfaction was attained throug hthe visual realization alone. The tendency to express directly the external aspects of things found a stronger and more perfect means of expression through pictorial rather than literary means." (p.341) Glynne Wickham, in his study of the medieval drama, makes the same point. Although the populace of late medieval Europe was still mostly illiterate, they were not cut off from the philosophical, religious, and moral issues of the time because they were virtually surrounded by what he calls visual iconography.

Medieval theatre is a major example of this visual iconography. The audience of that time clearly went to see the plays because so much was communicated visually, apart from the actual spoken words, not like modern theatre, in terms of realism, but rather symbolically. Both specific characters and allegorical figures could be recognized either by their symbolic artifacts or by their garments. For example, the viewers would immediately recognize the figure of Justice by the scales, of St. Peter by his keys, of Judas by his red hair, of Envy by a snake, and of Satan by a variety of images, including a spider and an owl. Why an owl? Probably because it flies in the nighttime. And the impressive range of spectacular costume in stage performances is suggested by the detailed list of "players’ gear" found in the Worcester cathedral, which included a king’s cloak of tissue, a gown of silk, a green jerkin, two caps, wigs, furs, armor, wings for angels, gloves, jewelry, and tantalizingly vague – "the devil’s apparel." The phrase implies something immediately recognizable.

The figures of both good and evil, both virtue and vice, were represented in either symbolic costume or with symbolic artifacts. Sometimes this involved rather spectacular staging, as when in one play Lucifer rose up out of Hell riding a dragon. The visual representation of evil involved both mythic demons like Lucifer and Beelzebub and human manifestations of the seven deadly sins, either allegorical or individualized. In both cases the symbolic costume and artifact identify the figure pictorially.

Now let us look at some specific examples. John Bale’s play Three Laws is identified on its title page as a Comedy concerning the three laws of Nature, Moses, and Christ, as they are separately corrupted by Sodomites, Pharisees, and Papists. In the text Idolatry and Sodomy corrupt the laws of Nature; Ambition and Covetousness subvert the laws of Moses; False Doctrine and Hypocrisy defile the laws of Christ. In the final act Vindicta Dei punishes the vices with water, fire, and the sword, instruments symbolic of the three kinds of corruption, and the laws are restored. As for the costuming of the evil figures, the author John Bale obviously attached much significance to the visual impact of his characters, for he added to the text a note on how they should be attired. "Let Idolatry be decked like an old witch; Sodomy like a monk of all sects; Covetousness like a spiritual lawyer; False Doctrine like a popish doctor and Hypocrisy like a gray friar."

Costume plays a major role in Wit and Science. The hero, Wit, at first wears a scholar’s gown, but his subsequent experiences with the evil vices of Idleness and Tediousness change that. Idleness dresses him, the text tells us, like Ignorance (not explaining that), and blackens his face. The device of the blackened face occurs in several other plays of the time. As Wit then behold himself in the glass of Reason, he is both shocked and outraged. "Ignorance’s coat, hood, ears – yea, by the mass, / Cockscomb and all, I lack but a bauble! / As for this face, it is abominable, / As black as the devil." (826-29). As for the giant Tediousness, the greatest threat to the would-be scholar Wit, he comes on stage "with a visor over his head" (p.205). The allegorical implications of the visor are clear. That part of the helmet which covers the eyes and blocks the view has an obviously negative effect on the ability to study.

The device of changing clothes is frequently used in the depiction of evil figures. In the play Respublica the wicked characters have an interesting conversation regarding the importance of changing clothes in order to change identity and thereby proceed with their evil "cloaked collusion" (l. 24). The Vice here is Avarice, who goes by the name of Policy, and he persuades three gallants also to change their identities. He renames Insolence Authority; Oppression becomes Reformation; and Adulation is converted to Honesty. In order for these hypocritical new identities to be […..missing]

The play Enough Is As Good As A Feast has the figures of Worldly Man and Heavenly Man representing the split nature of mankind. The Vice here is Covetous, who is upset to learn that his intended victim, Worldly Man, has forsaken him in favor of the virtuous figures of Enough and Contentation. He is determined to go to him and change things, and for that purpose he asks Precipitation to fetch his gown. It is obvious what impression he wants to make on his victim, but when Precipitation shows up with a cloak rather than a gown, he is outraged. Although he does not succeed inn winning him back, at the end of the play Worldly Man dies and is carried off to hell by Satan.

Clearly the medieval audience rezognized the different garments. In some cases the use of the wrong garment could be ironic. In Apius and Virginia the Vice named Haphazard describes his own appearance in ironic terms. Referring to himself: "What a proper gentileman I am of truthe" (sc.11) Then he adds by way of confirmation "that may yee see by my long side gown" (l.180). What is true, however, is that typically the Fool also wore a long side gown. Although he manages to victimize several people, Haphazard – a foolish Vice – is led off to be hanged at the end.

Particularly significant in the use of garments to represent evil characters is the satire on new fashions. Usually focused on individual human characters rather than vices, in one play, Like Will to Like, the Vice specifically embodies the taste for the latest fashion. He is appropriately named Nicolas Newfangle, and his purpose is to satirize new fashion. In these plays the latest fashions are associated with sinfulness. This Vice explains that in his apprenticeship with Lucifer, he learned to "make gowns with long sleeves and winges", "ruffs like calves chitterlings," "caps, hats, cotes, and all kind of apparails, / And especially breeches as big as barrels." He thus boasts about his learning all of this from Lucifer, who should appear but the devil himself, who does not speak a word. But we are told that "the name Lucifer must be written on his back and on his brest." Talk about visual! Throughout the play Nichol Newfangle reflects on his preoccupation with fashionable novelties, and at one point he moves into the audience with "trim merchandise" to sell. Unfortunately we’ll never know whether he succeeded, but at the end of the play he rides to Hell on the devil’s back.

One of the most interesting plays for its use of significant garments, and also one of the most theatrical pieces of the time is All for Money, by Thomas Lupton.

After an unusually long prologue, which is concerned with many things, including the "godly sciences" which are worthy of study, including medicine, music, cosmography and geometry, but none as worthy as "heavenly theology." Fittingly, the first character to appear on stage after the prologue, is Theology, appropriately dressed in a "long ancient garment, like a Prophet." He is followed by Science, clothed like a Philosopher, and Art, carrying the tools of his many crafts. After these three comes the titular representation of evil, Money. His gown is half yellow and half white, with "the coin of silver and gold painted on it", and he boasts of the many kinds of people who love him, some even better than they love God. Sin and Pleasure then appear, followed by Damnation, who "has a terrible vizard on his face", and his garment is "painted with flames of fire." Not surprisingly Satan himself then appears, "deformedly dressed as he may be." His sons Gluttony and Pride also appear. When Sin and the others leave, "Learning-with-Money" appears, richly apparalled, and Learning-without-Money "apparalled like a scholar," obviously not rich. Will, times have not changed. Then, most colorfully of all, Money-without-Learning appears, "apparalled like a rich churl, with bags of money by his sides." The three of them have a long discussion, after which the inevitable "Neither-Money-Nor-Learning comes on stage, clothed – of course – like a beggar. Finally Judas appears, a damned soul, "in black with flames of fire and a fearful vizard."

The examples I have given so far are from morality plays, but there are examples from the mystery plays as well. As for the appearance of the devil himself, in the Fall of Lucifer plays we learn that when he feel from heaven, his feet became hooves, his hands claws, his skin tangled fur, and his wings were covered with tattered goose and hen feathers. In the Garden of Eden plays in the Norwich and Chester cycles, Satan tempts Eve by donning a disguise. He wears a woman’s face mask, false breasts, gloves to hide his claws, and snake-skin to hide his hooves. In some of the plays there are also references to his face turning black. The use of black to symbolize moral degeneration, as we have seen, also reappears in the morality plays.

The use of costuming also appears in some mystery plays. In the final play of Judgement in the Wakefield cycle, many details of costuming are cited, particularly in regard to women. One is described sarcastically by the demon Tutivillus: "She can caper full proud with japes and with gins, / Her head high in a cloud, but not shamed by her sins or evil; / With this power and paint, she plans to look quaint." And in another instance: "She is horned like a cow, and full secret her sin; / Her side gaiter hangs now, furred with a cat’s skin." He makes further references to "pranked up gowns and such." Fancy clothes are associated with evil in the mysteries as in the moralities.

What conclusions can we draw from all this about the appearance of evil on the late medieval stage? It is frustrating to discover so many references to "the devil’s costume" without any attached description. Apparently, however, it was such an established tradition that people knew immediately what was meant by the phrase. The details we do have about the appearance of Lucifer are animalistic. There are many references to claws and hooves. Some specific evil figures have specific and recurring details of appearance, e.g., Judas with his red hair. What is true of demons and vices is the use of the color black, whether on the skin or the clothing. There are also many references to images of fire, costumes marked with flames and occasionally an actual firecracker. What was consistently true for both allegorical vices and for individual human characters was the use of exaggeratedly fashionable clothing. If a character appeared on stage looking like a wealthy socialite dressed in the latest fad clothing, the audience would have immediately recognized him (or her) as evil. References to changes of clothing are also significant. On the one hand, it suggests hypocrisy, ad also it implies a superficiality of character which is fundamentally wicked in its emphasis on appearance. What is true is that in these moralities and mysteries the audience learned much about the nature of evil from its appearance.